Electricity
Voltage, the driving force in electrical circuits, and energy, the stored power, are directly connected through the potential energy stored in capacitors or batteries. The formula for potential energy, E=1/2CV^2, reveals the proportional relationship between voltage (V) and energy (E). Additionally, energy dissipation in resistors over time can be quantified using V=IRt. Understanding this voltage-joules…
Lasers approximate point sources in the far-field due to negligible phase and amplitude changes in beam propagation. However, near the source, phase and amplitude variations are significant. Coherence ensures phase and amplitude stability over time and space, contributing to controlled beam propagation. Beam divergence, diffraction, and phase-amplitude distribution influence laser beam characteristics. Despite limitations in…
Batteries are critical energy sources for various applications, and understanding the type of current they generate is essential. Batteries primarily produce Direct Current (DC), which flows in a constant direction. Alternating Current (AC) reverses its direction periodically and is usually generated by alternating the polarity of the terminals. Common DC batteries include lead-acid, lithium-ion, and…
Magnetic field in a current loop is determined by Ampère’s Law, which relates the current enclosed by a loop to the magnetic field it creates. Biot-Savart Law provides the formula for calculating the magnetic field at a distance from a small current element. The magnetic field of a current loop creates a uniform field within…
Electromagnetic waves, fundamental to science and technology, are unique in their ability to propagate through a vacuum, defying the need for a medium. Unlike other waves, electromagnetic waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation. This allows them to travel freely through the empty…
Work function of copper, a fundamental property in solid physics, represents the energy required to remove an electron from its surface. It is influenced by the energy levels of valence electrons and the Fermi energy of copper. The work function determines the electrical conductivity of metals and plays a crucial role in processes like the…
Instruments used to measure mass play a crucial role in various scientific, industrial, and commercial applications. Scales, spring balances, digital scales, triple beam balances, analytical balances, precision balances, weighing scales, and mass comparators are among the commonly used instruments. Scales, in general, determine the mass by balancing the weight of the object with a known…
Loudspeakers optimized for low bass frequencies feature a low resonance frequency, high Q factor for extended bass response, and appropriate Thiele-Small parameters that guide driver excursion and power handling. Resonance frequency determines the loudspeaker’s natural bass response, while Q factor balances damping and bass smoothness. Thiele-Small parameters provide a comprehensive understanding of a loudspeaker’s characteristics,…
Truck tires may not touch the ground due to factors like using twin-tire assemblies to optimize load distribution, maintaining proper tire inflation for adequate ground contact, ensuring balanced axle weight distribution for even tire wear, considering the truck’s drag coefficient to reduce air resistance, understanding the impact of rolling resistance on tire traction, choosing appropriate…
The electric field of a sphere is a fundamental concept in electrostatics, describing the force exerted by a charged sphere on nearby objects. Derived using Gauss’s Law and surface integrals, the electric field exhibits spherical symmetry, reflecting the sphere’s uniform charge distribution. Superposition principles allow for the calculation of fields due to multiple charges. Practical…
Voltage sources in series have an equivalent voltage equal to the sum of their individual voltages. The equivalent polarity is determined by the source with the highest magnitude. The maximum current is limited by the smallest current capacity source. Voltage division allows for calculating the output voltage of each source based on the ratio of…
Copper is a diamagnetic material, which means it weakly repels magnets. Unlike ferromagnetic materials, diamagnetic materials do not have a Curie temperature and do not exhibit saturation magnetization. Diamagnetism is a fundamental property of copper and is caused by the repulsion of the outermost electrons in the copper atom from the applied magnetic field. As…
